• Does playing football on artificial turf increase the risk of injury?
• Shane Lowry’s strength and conditioning
• Can app-based and self-guided resistance programs replace supervised coaching?

Does playing football on artificial turf increase the risk of injury?

There are often claims that playing football on artificial turf increases the risk of injury compared to natural grass. However, a recent study found no evidence to support these claims.

The research examined 167 games from the 2019 Finnish Premier Football League. Out of these games, 90 were played on artificial turf while 77 took place on natural grass. A total of 113 injuries were reported, showing an injury incidence rate of 27.2 injuries per 1,000 hours on artificial turf, compared to 23.9 injuries per 1,000 hours on natural grass. Although the injury rate was slightly higher on artificial turf, this difference was not statistically significant.

While further long-term studies would be beneficial, this research indicates that there is no considerable increase in injury risk when playing on artificial turf. If you would like to learn more about this topic, check out our blog Natural grass vs. artificial turf: which surface poses an increased injury risk?

Shane Lowry’s strength and conditioning

Historically, golf and Irish golfer Shane Lowry haven’t always been associated with athleticism. However, a recent Instagram post from the European Tour Performance Institute’s Health and Performance Unit reveals a different side.

In the post, Lowry is seen performing trap bar deadlifts, step-ups, and Romanian deadlifts (RDLs). This glimpse into his training highlights the growing importance of strength and conditioning in elite golf, which has undoubtedly contributed to Lowry’s impressive physical transformation.

If you’re keen on strength and conditioning for golfers, I highly recommend checking out this post and following the European Tour Performance Institute Health and Performance Unit’s Instagram page for more great content on strength training in the sport. Also, our blog Golf strength training: PGA-level tips to add metres to your drives, is definitely worth reading too!

Can app-based and self-guided resistance programs replace supervised coaching?

A recent study revealed that, while apps and self-guided coaching may serve as alternatives to supervised in-person coaching, they simply can’t match its effectiveness! The research examined the impact of supervised, app-based, and self-guided resistance training programs over ten weeks.

The findings showed that supervised coaching achieved the highest adherence rate at 88%, compared to 81% for app-based coaching and just 52% for self-guided coaching. Moreover, the supervised group experienced significant improvements in body composition. Although all groups saw increases in squat and bench press one-rep max tests, the supervised coaching participants demonstrated notably greater gains in squat strength.

This study clearly indicates that while app-based and self-guided coaching can yield positive results when implemented correctly, supervised coaching remains the most effective approach for optimising resistance training outcomes, such as enhancing adherence, boosting strength, and improving body composition.

From us this week:

>> New course: Fundamental Movements in Youth
>> New podcast: The Science Behind England’s Ashes Preparation – with Lead Nutritionist Charlie Binns
>> New infographic: DOMS
>> New article: Hydrotherapy

Access to a growing library of sports science courses

SFS Academy is an all-access membership to premium sports science education.

With SFS Academy, you’ll learn from some of the best coaches around the world as they teach you how to apply the latest research and practice with your athletes.

The post Artificial Turf And Injuries! appeared first on Science for Sport.

• New research on music and bench press performance!
• Xander Schauffele teams up with Theo Health
• Is tackling a problem in youth rugby?

New research on music and bench press performance!

A fascinating study was recently published, revealing that one simple tip could help boost your bench press performance! The study involved 20 participants who performed the bench press under three different conditions: 1) listening to self-selected music, 2) listening to stimulating music, and 3) listening to no music at all. In each condition, the subjects completed three sets of eight repetitions at 75% of their 1RM.

The researchers measured both the average and peak power of the participants’ bench press across these conditions. They also assessed each participant’s Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) using the Borg Scale and their arousal level using the Felt Arousal Scale (FAS).

The findings indicated that listening to music significantly improved power output during the bench press compared to bench pressing without music. Interestingly, self-selected music led to higher levels of psychophysical activation compared to the stimulating music condition.

So the next time you hit the bench press, crank up the volume on your favourite song to boost your arousal and power output! To find out more on this topic, check out our blog Music and exercise: Can your favourite tunes really improve performance?

What’s your go-to workout song? We’d love to hear your suggestions!

Xander Schauffele teams up with Theo Health

Prominent golfer Xander Schauffele has garnered attention recently due to his collaboration with Theo Health, an innovative clothing company. Notably, Theo Health is not an ordinary clothing brand; it specialises in the development of smart clothing.

The company was founded by Jodie Sinclair, whose promising football career was abruptly halted by an ACL injury. During her recovery, Sinclair encountered a lack of support and guidance regarding her rehabilitation, leaving her uncertain about the effectiveness of her efforts. In response to this challenge, she established Theo Health, which merges apparel with technology. The company’s inaugural product, “The Alpha Shorts,” incorporates embedded inertial measurement units within compression shorts to monitor movement in real time. This product is capable of tracking various parameters, including depth, balance, asymmetry, and knee alignment.

Theo Health has successfully secured significant financing and anticipates launching mass-market distribution by summer 2027. It will be intriguing to see their progress and the potential popularity of their smart clothing products. With endorsements from elite athletes like Schauffele, the company’s outlook appears promising. Watch this space!

Is tackling a problem in youth rugby?

A recent study conducted by renowned Irish physiotherapist and PhD researcher Lauren Guilfoyle has revealed significant insights regarding injury trends in Irish youth rugby. Spanning four years and encompassing 50 teams, the study analysed 11,000 hours of match play involving over 15,000 youth rugby players, leading to notable findings concerning injuries resulting from rugby tackles.

The study identified that injuries sustained by tacklers occurred 33% more frequently and were 36% more severe compared to injuries experienced by ball carriers. Furthermore, the research indicated that tacklers predominantly incurred injuries to the head and shoulders, whereas ball carriers were more susceptible to injuries affecting the ankle and knee.

The findings of this study suggest that greater efforts are required to improve tackling techniques among Irish youth rugby players to reduce the high risk of injuries associated with tackling. Since Ireland is a prominent nation in world rugby, other countries are likely facing the issue.

With a significant amount of media attention right now on the safety of rugby and as a current S&C coach working with youth rugby players, I find it encouraging to see insightful research being conducted by individuals like Guilfoyle. Research like this has the potential to make rugby a safer sport.

From us this week:

>> New course: Profiling ACL Injuries
>> New podcast: Coaching Through Rehab with Michael Carolan
>> New infographic: Hydration Testing
>> New article: Hydrotherapy

Access to a growing library of sports science courses

SFS Academy is an all-access membership to premium sports science education.

With SFS Academy, you’ll learn from some of the best coaches around the world as they teach you how to apply the latest research and practice with your athletes.

The post Try This Tip To Boost Your Bench Press! appeared first on Science for Sport.

• The incredible “quiet eye” phenomenon in elite sports
• Jeff Cavaliere’s excellent breakdown of muscle hypertrophy
• A mixed protein solution can enhance key golf performance metrics

The incredible “quiet eye” phenomenon in elite sports

A recent YouTube video by Michael MacKelvie, released earlier this month, has garnered significant attention and sparked in-depth discussions online. This video offers a comprehensive exploration of the role of vision in sports. It encompasses the historical perspective of vision in sports, a thorough examination of the underlying scientific principles, expert analysis, real-life sporting instances, compelling narratives, and sophisticated visual effects.

The video commences by shedding light on a seminal breakthrough in sports science: the identification of the “quiet eye” in 1987. Initially, prevailing belief suggested that elite athletes processed their surroundings more rapidly through brief and focused visual tracking. However, Dr Joan Vickers’ groundbreaking work challenged this notion. Through a study comparing the eye movements of elite and sub-elite golfers during putting, she uncovered that elite golfers maintain their visual focus on the ball for an extended duration, coining this phenomenon the “quiet eye.”

Furthermore, Vickers conducted a similar experiment involving basketball players executing free throws, demonstrating that elite athletes sustained fixation on their target for 972 milliseconds, significantly surpassing the 357 milliseconds recorded for sub-elite athletes, thereby underscoring the extended duration of the “quiet eye” in elite performers. The video also presents Vickers’ study on ice hockey goalkeepers, revealing that when comparing successful saves to missed attempts, goalkeepers exhibited a notably prolonged duration of the “quiet eye” during successful saves.

While visual training yields results, the precise reasons behind its effectiveness remain unclear. The video examines the two primary theories regarding this matter. The first theory, “preprogramming,” posits that an extended quiet eye duration allows the brain more time to prepare for movement. The second theory, “online control,” suggests that the extended quiet eye duration can facilitate real-time adjustments during movement.

For those unfamiliar with the quiet eye, or for those seeking to enhance their athletes’ targeting abilities, this video is highly recommended. If you want to further your knowledge in skill acquisition, be sure to check out our course: Skill Acquisition

Jeff Cavaliere’s excellent breakdown of muscle hypertrophy

Renowned exercise specialist Jeff Cavaliere recently released a YouTube video emphasising the significance of using lighter weights to achieve muscle hypertrophy. The video quickly gained traction, amassing over 200,000 views within 24 hours of its release. Cavaliere’s use of a farming analogy garnered praise for effectively explaining the concept of muscle hypertrophy. In his analogy, he compares muscles to farms, muscle fibres to crops, and myonuclei in the muscles to farmers.

Cavaliere outlines three methods for driving muscle hypertrophy. Firstly, he discusses progressive overload, which involves increasing the load lifted or the number of repetitions performed. This method is likened to employing more farmers (myonuclei) to tend to the crops (muscle fibres) on the farm. However, Cavaliere notes that while initial muscle hypertrophy gains will be made, long-term reliance on this method is akin to micro-farming, ultimately leading to soil degradation and the necessity for crop rotation.

The second method highlighted is eccentric overload, achieved by elongating the muscle under tension. Cavaliere compares this technique to the significance of sunlight and rain for crops. It’s important to find a balance between sunshine and rain for healthy crop growth. Too much of either can be damaging. Similarly, relying too heavily on excessive eccentric overload during training can lead to muscle fatigue and soreness, which can impact the necessary training frequency for muscle hypertrophy development.

Lastly, Cavaliere discusses the underutilised method of metabolic stress, achieved by bringing the muscle to mechanical failure through lifting lighter loads for higher repetitions. This approach promotes the growth of satellite cells, similar to increasing the number of farmers on a farm and using an irrigation system to ensure constant crop production throughout the year. Although some may find Cavaliere’s farming analogy unconventional, it effectively explains the different methods for achieving muscle hypertrophy and underscores the underutilisation of lighter weights for this purpose. For those seeking to learn more about muscle hypertrophy, we strongly recommend watching Cavaliere’s video (here) and visiting our detailed blog Hypertrophy Training: The Complete Guide (plus workouts) and course Hypertrophy

A mixed protein solution can enhance key golf performance metrics

A recently published study investigated the impact of mixed protein supplementation on skeletal muscle health and golf swing performance. The study involved sixty golfers with a handicap of 20 or less. Participants were divided into two groups: one group consumed a mixed protein supplementation composed of casein, whey, and pea protein once a day for eight weeks, while the second group received a placebo supplement.

Results indicated that the mixed protein group experienced significant improvements in golf performance compared to the placebo group. Their average driver distance increased by over five metres, and the average driver ball speed increased by 1.36 m/s. Additionally, they demonstrated notable enhancements in handgrip strength and the two-minute push-up test.

The study’s findings suggest that a blend of animal and plant proteins can effectively enhance skeletal muscle health and sporting performance in golfers. Notably, the mixed protein solution used in this study employed a 3:1 ratio of animal to plant protein. Future research could consider comparing animal protein, plant protein, and mixed protein supplements to determine the most optimal option.

For individuals involved in nutritional support for golfers, this study warrants attention as it presents valuable insights.

From us this week:

>> New course: Flow State for Athletes
>> New podcast: Swim Faster Than Ever With Elite-Level Strength
>> New infographic: The Role Of Cueing For Youth Athletes
>> New article: Hydrotherapy

Access to a growing library of sports science courses

SFS Academy is an all-access membership to premium sports science education.

With SFS Academy, you’ll learn from some of the best coaches around the world as they teach you how to apply the latest research and practice with your athletes.

The post The “Quiet Eye” Phenomenon! appeared first on Science for Sport.

• Liverpool’s 6-minute run fitness test
• What is the most effective caffeine dosage for improving time trial performance in cycling?
• The benefits of foam rolling and dynamic stretching for golf swing performance

Liverpool’s 6-minute run fitness test

Following the conclusion of the European Championships, attention has shifted back to club football. Recently, Liverpool F.C. released a YouTube video documenting their first day of the pre-season, which garnered a remarkable one million views within three days of its publication. Notably, a particular segment of the video featuring a fitness test sparked significant discussion within the sports science community.

The fitness test, visible at the 12-minute mark of the video, involved Liverpool players running at maximum intensity around a square grid for six minutes. Some individuals have contended that the test’s simplicity is outdated, especially considering the advanced technology available in the sports science industry. While others believed a more intermittent test, like the Yo-Yo Intermittent Test, is more specific to football.

Contrarily, a post on LinkedIn by acclaimed sports scientist Gareth Sandford provided insight into the rationale behind the test. Sandford argued that “6 minutes is approximately the duration one can maintain running at VO₂ max intensity”. Consequently, he suggests that the pace sustainable for this duration could confidently determine one’s Maximum Aerobic Speed (MAS). So according to Sandford, the 6-minute run test can accurately measure aerobic fitness levels. Additionally, Christopher Hernandez Robinson also posted on LinkedIn in support of Sandford. His post discusses a scientific study showing a strong link between the 6-minute run test and VO₂ max.

Given this context, it prompts the question: was Liverpool F.C.’s six-minute run an appropriate choice for conducting an aerobic test on their first day back? Alternatively, would another aerobic test have been more suitable? We encourage you to check out the video and both Sandford’s and Robinson’s LinkedIn posts, where a thought-provoking debate has ensued within the comments section. Be sure to let us know your thoughts on the matter!

If you are interested in this subject, we have a free MAS Calculator available to download here and excellent courses on Maximal Aerobic Speed and Aerobic Conditioning for Football

What is the most effective caffeine dosage for improving time trial performance in cycling?

A recent systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate the impact of caffeine on cycling time trial performance, addressing a gap in current research. The analysis encompassed 15 studies that explored the influence of caffeine on time trial performance, with performance gauged by completion time or mean power output during the trial.

The results of the analysis revealed that the ingestion of 4–6 mg/kg of caffeine significantly enhanced time trial performance. This moderate dose provided evidence that caffeine’s efficacy does not rely on high doses. The research cautioned against high doses of caffeine, which may lead to adverse effects such as gastrointestinal discomfort and reduced concentration. Interestingly, low doses of caffeine (1–3 mg/kg) were found to be ineffective in improving time trial performance.

The researchers indicated that a moderate dose of caffeine led to an approximate 2% improvement in time trial performance. They drew attention to the significance of this enhancement by illustrating that a 2% improvement in time trial cycling could have resulted in the 8th place finisher in the Tokyo Olympics securing a bronze medal by finishing 3rd.

While acknowledging certain limitations, such as the failure to differentiate between genders and consider other concurrent supplements consumed by cyclists, the research offers valuable insights for time trial cyclists. Future research in this area may also need to include the evaluation of psychological and physiological performance factors rather than just completion time and mean power output. Nonetheless, this research serves as a useful reference for determining an effective caffeine dosage for time trial cyclists.

The benefits of foam rolling and dynamic stretching for golf swing performance

A recent study has underscored the significance of an efficient warm-up in enhancing sport-specific skill execution. The study compared golf swing performance following two interventions: foam rolling and dynamic stretching of the lead hip, and repetitive golf swing practice.

The study revealed that foam rolling and dynamic stretching significantly enhanced the internal range of motion and internal rotation strength of the lead hip. Furthermore, a notable improvement in golf swing flight distance was observed when using foam rolling and dynamic stretching.

This study thus emphasises the importance of a well-executed warm-up in optimising golf swing performance. If you’re working with golfers and you notice them warming up by practising their golf swing, grab the foam roller and don’t forget to give that lead hip a good dynamic stretch!

From us this week:

>> New course: Investigating S&C Practices
>> New podcast: Elite Energy: Nutrition Strategies For Winning
>> New infographic: Beetroot Juice
>> New article: TeamBuildr: Everything You Need To Know

Access to a growing library of sports science courses

SFS Academy is an all-access membership to premium sports science education.

With SFS Academy, you’ll learn from some of the best coaches around the world as they teach you how to apply the latest research and practice with your athletes.

The post Liverpool’s Pre-season Fitness Test! appeared first on Science for Sport.

• Is calorie counting a waste of time?
• Benefits of resistance training for youth golfers
• Coaches still not comfortable with the menstrual cycle

Is calorie counting a waste of time?

In a recent article published by the Telegraph, British epidemiologist and medical doctor Tim Spector delves into the pitfalls associated with calorie counting. The practice of calorie counting has gained significant traction in both the general public, aiming to manage obesity, and the athletic community, striving to achieve either weight loss or muscle gain for optimal performance.

Spector begins by addressing the mounting concern over obesity levels, particularly in the U.K., and illustrates how calorie-counting diets tend to yield short-term weight loss but often fail to produce long-term success. He proceeds to outline his perspective on why calorie counting proves ineffective.

Principally, Spector argues that counting calories leads individuals to obsess over food label details. However, he asserts that food labels are highly unreliable, frequently providing inaccurate information, leading to underestimations of calorie intake. Notably, Spector points out that the most accurate food labels tend to appear on heavily processed artificial foods, consumption of which he advocates limiting.

Even when food intake is meticulously tracked, the body’s absorption of calories varies from the quantity consumed. Spector illustrates this point by providing an example of two individuals consuming an equal amount of calories from nuts and beans, yet experiencing different rates of calorie absorption.

Spector further argues that calorie counting may cause people to choose nutritionally deficient “junk” foods instead of equally calorie-rich but nutrient-rich alternatives. To back up this point, he mentions a study that compared the effects of an ultra-processed diet and a whole-food-based diet, both containing the same number of calories. The study showed a significant difference in weight outcomes between the two groups after two weeks.

Finally, Spector explores the hormonal response to ultra-processed foods and the metabolic changes resulting from a sustained calorie deficit. This article provides persuasive arguments that question the effectiveness of calorie counting.

If you are a qualified nutritionist or dietitian, we recommend you check out this piece! We would love to hear your thoughts on whether you believe weight loss is all about being in a calorie deficit, or if you agree with Spector and think that calorie counting is a “waste of time.”

Benefits of resistance training for youth golfers

A recent notable study has emphasised the significance of youth resistance training. The study delved into the effects of a 12-week progressive resistance training program on talented junior golfers.

Eighteen young golfers were divided into a control group and an experimental group. While both groups maintained their regular golfing activities, the experimental group participated in two resistance training sessions per week for 12 weeks.

Unsurprisingly, the resistance training group exhibited significant improvements in the isometric mid-thigh pull test, the countermovement jump test, and the standing long jump test. Additionally, they displayed a noteworthy enhancement in the overall score of a golf movement screen test. Interestingly, they also demonstrated superior progress in specific golfing skills, particularly in club head speed and carry distance for a 6-iron and driver.

This study effectively showcased how youth resistance training not only enhances athletic abilities but also improves sport-specific capabilities. Furthermore, the study accounted for maturity offset, adding further credibility to its conclusions. If you are involved in training or working with young golfers, this study is essential reading for you.

Coaches still not comfortable with the menstrual cycle

A recent study published in the International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching explored the role of coaches in supporting female football players through their menstrual cycle. The study highlighted the impact of the menstrual cycle on female athletes’ performance and revealed a perceived lack of support for them during this time, often resulting in their disengagement from sports.

The research involved interviews with 13 coaches from elite adult and youth football clubs in Scotland. Findings indicated that coaches generally felt uncomfortable discussing the menstrual cycle with their athletes, assuming that such conversations would embarrass the players. Interestingly, the study revealed that establishing trust and familiarity in the coach-athlete relationship facilitated more open communication about the menstrual cycle.

This study underscores the need for enhanced education and practical guidance for coaches to better support female athletes during their menstrual cycle. Normalising discussions about the menstrual cycle between coaches and female athletes is crucial for creating an environment where female athletes feel supported, ultimately enabling them to excel in their sport.

If you are interested in this topic, check out our blog Understanding and approaching the entire menstrual cycle: A guide for coaches

From us this week:

>> New course: GPS Devices
>> New podcast: Rocket Your Career With The Perfect Placement
>> New infographic: Total Energy Expenditure of Elite Tennis Players
>> New article: Stop Looking! These Are The Best Infrared Saunas (2024)

Access to a growing library of sports science courses

SFS Academy is an all-access membership to premium sports science education.

With SFS Academy, you’ll learn from some of the best coaches around the world as they teach you how to apply the latest research and practice with your athletes.

The post Calorie Counting – A Controversial Subject appeared first on Science for Sport.

• Is zone two cardio training effective?
• Mouth rinsing may improve RDL performance
• New sports are competing for a spot in the Olympics

Is zone two cardio training effective?

In a recent YouTube video, Matt Casturo provided an insightful and instructive analysis of zone two cardio training, a topic that is often misunderstood. Zone two, which falls on the lower end of the five heart rate zones, is commonly referred to as “base training”. Casturo explains that zone two is characterised by heart rates that range between 60% and 70% of an individual’s maximum heart rate. To determine one’s maximum heart rate, Casturo recommends utilising the Bruce protocol, although he recognizes that using the formula 220 minus one’s age is simpler, albeit less precise.

Casturo acknowledges and addresses several misconceptions and challenges associated with zone two training. One significant problem with zone two training is that it can be difficult to run at a slow enough pace to maintain a heart rate within zone two. To address this issue, Casturo recommends incorporating walking periods into training routines, which can prevent the heart rate from exceeding zone two.

Another common misconception about zone two cardio training is that it is ineffective to train at such a low heart rate. However, Casturo discusses compelling research comparing Boston Marathon qualifiers and non-qualifiers. The findings suggest that qualifiers trained at low intensity for 77% to 84% of their overall training runs, while non-qualifiers trained at low intensity for only 36% to 43% of their training runs. Training at lower intensities allowed qualifiers to accumulate more training volume than non-qualifiers. Specifically, qualifiers ran an average of 40 to 46 miles per week, while non-qualifiers ran significantly fewer miles per week (23 to 35 miles).

Casturo concludes his video by guiding how to program zone two training and offering three program examples. For those interested in enhancing their aerobic conditioning or seeking to learn more about zone two cardio training, Casturo’s video is highly recommended.

Mouth rinsing may improve RDL performance

The topic of mouth rinsing for endurance performance has long been a subject of debate in the scientific community. Recently, however, there has been a substantial online discussion regarding the effectiveness of mouth rinsing for strength and power performance. The present debate was sparked by a study that found mouth rinsing to improve the performance of the Romanian Deadlift (RDL).

The study involved participants performing five sets of six reps of RDLs after mouth rinsing with a 6.6% maltodextrin carbohydrate solution and a placebo solution containing no carbohydrates. The results indicated that when participants rinsed their mouths with the carbohydrate solution, it subsequently improved the concentric and eccentric peak power of their RDLs.

While this research is promising and opens up a new potential avenue for mouth rinsing, the study had one significant limitation. The researchers failed to measure the amount of mouth rinse solution that was spat out. As a result, participants may have ingested some carbohydrates from the solution instead of merely rinsing their mouths. However, any potentially swallowed amounts should only have negligible effects on the study results.

While the results appear promising, much more research is needed before we start mouth rinsing before our RDLs in the gym!

New sports are competing for a spot in the Olympics

BBC Sport recently published an informative article regarding the inclusion of new sports in the Olympic Games. The piece provided a comprehensive overview of the logistics involved in the rigorous application process and highlighted the rapid rise in popularity of these sports. The article acknowledged the successful inclusion of new sports such as skateboarding and sport climbing in the Tokyo Olympics.

Flying disc disciplines such as disc golf and Ultimate have garnered a significant following, with an estimated 10 million players worldwide. The Chinese Flying Disc Administrative Committee reported that the new Chinese Ultimate League attracted an incredible TV audience of 1.6 billion in 2023. Teqball, a sport that combines table tennis and foot volleyball, was first showcased in 2016, and famous footballers such as Ronaldinho have participated in Teqball competitions. Dodgeball, with an estimated 67 million players globally, is another sport aspiring to be included in the Olympics.

While it may take several years for a sport to be accepted as part of the Olympics, the article highlights the emergence of new sports that could challenge and potentially replace traditional sports. As such, strength and conditioning coaches, sports nutritionists, physiotherapists, and sports psychologists must be aware of the emerging popularity of these new sports. Who knows a lot of professionals may end up working in these sports in the coming decades!

I highly recommend checking out this article which gives a glimpse into what the future Olympic games may look like. It’s a fascinating read!

From us this week:

>> New course: Hydrotherapy
>> New podcast: How Just 100g Of Resistance Can Change The Sprinting World
>> New infographic: How Fast Should You Perform The Eccentric When Jumping
>> New article: These Are The Best Open & Closed Trap Bars In 2024

Access to a growing library of sports science courses

SFS Academy is an all-access membership to premium sports science education.

With SFS Academy, you’ll learn from some of the best coaches around the world as they teach you how to apply the latest research and practice with your athletes.

The post Zone Two Cardio: THE TRUTH! appeared first on Science for Sport.

• Developing the foot and ankle complex
• The effect of caffeine timing on muscle reactivity
• Keep a golf ball in your freezer for strong feet!

Developing the foot and ankle complex

Chris Barnard, a well-known figure in the athletic community, recently uploaded a thought-provoking video on YouTube. In the video, he talks about the “missing piece or holy grail of performance development in athletes”, which he believes is the development of the foot and ankle complex. According to Barnard, coaches often struggle in this area, making it a crucial aspect of athletic performance that needs more attention.

Barnard emphasises the importance of building tendon stiffness and elastic strength qualities in the foot and ankle. He suggests that coaches should incorporate low-level plyometric exercises such as pogo hops that isolate the foot and ankle into their training sessions. Barnard also discusses some of the pogo hop series he uses before his sessions depending on the session’s goal.

Barnard advises that coaches should not neglect strengthening exercises for ankle plantar and dorsiflexion. He warns that performing only pogo hops may lead to injuries like shin splints if strength in this region is undeveloped. Therefore, Barnard recommends his athletes walk back on their heels after performing a pogo hop exercise to strengthen the tibialis anterior.

In conclusion, Barnard’s video provides valuable insights into the foot and ankle complex’s development, which is often overlooked by coaches. With Barnard’s practical recommendations, coaches can effectively program for the foot and ankle complex and intensify their programs.

The effect of caffeine timing on muscle reactivity

A new study on the effects of caffeine on muscle contraction timing was published recently. This study was unique because it measured the direct impact of caffeine on muscle fibers using tensiomyography, instead of focusing solely on the effects of caffeine on the nervous system.

Forty-two male athletes were given 6 mg/kg body weight of caffeine. Tensiomyography measurements were taken of the athletes’ gastrocnemius (calf) muscle before caffeine consumption, 30 minutes after caffeine consumption, and 60 minutes after caffeine consumption. The results showed caffeine consumption increased muscle contraction speed and reduced contraction delay time. However, the study found that consuming caffeine 30 minutes before performance was more effective than consuming caffeine 60 minutes prior.

This study suggests that athletes who require improved muscle performance may benefit from consuming caffeine 30 minutes before performance. The results indicate that improved muscle contraction time and reduced contraction delay can potentially aid athletic performance.

Keep a golf ball in your freezer for strong feet!

Foot strength seemed to be a hot topic last week! Matt Casturo of the Movement System shared a cool YouTube short video on a foot strength hack! Casturo suggests that keeping a golf or lacrosse ball in the freezer can help you build and maintain strong, healthy feet. While he emphasizes the benefits of using heavy loads to build the plantar fascia in the feet, a golf ball can be just as effective!

According to Casturo, rolling your foot over a golf ball placed on the ground can significantly reduce the risk of injury. He claims that spending just a few minutes each day on foot rolling movements “can decrease your injury risk by up to 2.4 times”. The study referred to by Casturo to support this video can be found here.

This video is an excellent example of how a simple hack can help to increase foot strength and reduce the risk of injury. However, it is worth mentioning that the video failed to describe why the golf ball should be stored in the freezer! Nevertheless, if you want to improve your foot strength and/or reduce injury risk, this short video is recommended!

From us this week:

>> New course: Testing Battery Approach
>> New podcast: Creating South Australia’s Best Gym
>> New infographic: Beetroot Juice Does Not Enhance Running Performance in Rugby Players
>> New article: Coach’s 10 Best Cold Plunge Tubs (2024): Portable, Budget & More!

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Get instant access when you join today on a 7-day free trial.

The post The Missing Piece of Athletic Performance appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Introduction
2. What is a KBOX?
3. What does a KBOX do?
4. How does KBOX work?
5. Is KBOX worth it?
6. How do I set up KBOX?
7. Conclusion

Introduction

The kBox is a flywheel training device that is in its fifth generation of development since its inception in 2011-12. The platform-based flywheel device offers a range of exercises to be performed in the gym (e.g. squats, hinges, rows), and is portable to travel wherever necessary (e.g. pitch, home gym, or hotel). The action of the flywheel provides a training experience that is truly unlike any other, and the physical benefits of increasing strength and hypertrophy are well-researched (1). Ultimately, for individuals looking to maximise their time and results with training, the novel stimulus allowed with the kBox can be a difference maker for athletes aiming to gain an edge regarding performance enhancement and injury resilience.

What is a KBOX?

A kBox is a platform-based flywheel training device designed by Exxentric. The platform allows users to stand atop and push against in order to perform a variety of exercises (e.g. squat, hinge, calf raise, row, etc.). Users will actively push or pull (i.e. apply force) to a strap attached to a handle, bar, or belt that works against a rotating flywheel as resistance.  Essentially, the kBox is a platform-based flywheel training device designed by Exxentric that has gone through five versions of advancements in the last twelve years.

Exxentric is arguably the leader in the resurgence of flywheel training for fitness and athletic development over the last decade. Fredrik Correa and Marten Fredriksson founded their company in 2011 after identifying a need for a more practical and efficient training tool while working with youth ice hockey players (2). Over the last decade, the kBox has continued to evolve into the premiere option for a variety of exercises using flywheel technology. It has been researched as an alternative to free weight exercises and continues to surface as a worthwhile training means that matches or exceeds the gains experienced with traditional free weight training (3). Ultimately, the stimulus experienced with a flywheel provides a meaningful stimulus that may benefit the athlete, team, or individual you work with.

The use of flywheel devices in training dates back to the late 1700s (Gymnasticon, 2).  Flywheels were used in the early 1900s for exercise physiology research and gained the strongest support in the 1990s as a training means for astronauts aiming to limit muscle and bone loss during zero-gravity space travel (2). The training experience and opportunities to load various movement patterns (e.g. squat, leg extension, etc.) through the inertia and kinetic energy generated in a flywheel provided a practical option that exposes muscles to the necessary resistance (i.e. mechanical tension) to support maintaining strength and muscle mass (2). 

With the kBox, Exxentric took the approach of training astronauts in space to training athletes in the gym, on the court, or at the pitch. With a much more favourable environment, flywheel training provides substantial increases in strength and muscle mass (1).  Through Exxentric’s advancements over the years, the kBox has become a versatile, portable, and practical option for a range of athletes to at-home exercise enthusiasts.

What does a KBOX do?

The kBox creates resistance through the rotation of weighted wheels that generate inertia based on the momentum generated during the concentric (upward) action of a movement (1). What is special about the kBox and flywheel training is that the design and materials used allow for the resistance to match the effort of the user. For example, however hard the athlete works (pushes or pulls) through the concentric action, the axle will continue to rotate and recoil the strap with the same energy that was generated. Hence the term, ‘isoinertial,’ where the load is constant due to the inertia generated by the user and kinetic energy built in (1).

Based on the strategies used during the concentric and eccentric portion, there is opportunity to experience an eccentric overload either by a delayed reception of the inertia on the eccentric side (lengthening portion of the movement), or an accentuated concentric action through assistance or a stronger position.  For example, if an athlete is squatting on the kBox, and pushes with maximal effort throughout the full range of motion (especially in the top portion of the squat where it becomes more advantageous, and the user is able to generate more energy in the wheel). As the strap recoils, the athlete can move into a deeper squat position to brake and redirect the rotating flywheel.  Given the additional energy built as the athlete accelerates up, there is potential for eccentric overload to be experienced at the bottom. This ‘overload’ has been shown to help build muscle, strength, and resiliency (5).

How does KBOX work?

Resistance training typically works with external loads and gravity (e.g. barbells, dumbbells, etc.), whereas the kBox uses inertia generated in the flywheel to create resistance similar to a yoyo. The thing to recognize is that whatever energy is generated on the way up/out (as the strap uncoils) will be returned on the way down/in (as the strap recoils). Additionally, users can use larger wheels to reduce the speed of movement and increase the amount of inertia to overcome when performing various exercises.

Due to the rotating wheel, there is a cyclical action to repetitions that is unlike any other form of resistance training.  The greatest levels of tension or generated while the muscles are at their longest length, which is an aspect beneficial to increasing hypertrophy and durability for athletes aiming to do so (4).

Due to the rotating wheel, there is a cyclical action to repetitions that is unlike any other form of resistance training.  The greatest levels of tension or generated while the muscles are at their longest length, which is an aspect beneficial to increasing hypertrophy and durability for athletes aiming to do so (4).

Given the fact that the resistance is generated by the user, the ‘variable resistance’ provided aims to maximise each repetition from the start (given the effort level of the user is maximal), and tapers to match the effects of fatigue. This allows sets to be extended further than typical mass-based resistance that remains constant. Therefore, it allows athletes to accumulate more stimulatory repetitions in a set, volume in a session, and possibly better skill and performance development.

Regarding performance metrics, the kMeter (which measures flywheel rotations) provides live, rep by rep, feedback (2). Users are able to see concentric/eccentric power, range of motion, forces produced (concentric) or yielded (eccentric), eccentric overload achieved, and energy expended for each repetition (5). This insight is useful for making training decisions and tracking progress similar to velocity-based training, these metrics provide the user with a target to achieve and can help to dictate the number of reps in a set, and sets in a given session. 

Is KBOX worth it?

Given the practicality and novelty of a kBox, I would suggest considering incorporating it into your training regime. The advancements over the last decade have made it a durable and efficient system that is able to adapt to numerous exercises (e.g. squats, hinges, rows, etc.)

Likewise, for athletes with limited training space (e.g. garage gym, on field, or travelling), they can accomplish a good amount of primary complex movements with minimal equipment and adjustments.

Therefore, if the budget allows, I think a commitment and exposure to flywheel training can be a beneficial exposure to maximising the return on strength, hypertrophy, rehabilitation, and resiliency training.

Further, there are a range of kBox options available (e.g. kBox Active, kBox Lite, kBox Pro, etc.) that vary in price (2).  This allows users to find the model that best fits their needs at an affordable price.

How do I set up KBOX?

The kBox is easy to set up, has minimal moving parts, and has great support in navigating any technical issues from Exxentric (2). The advancements in materials and interaction of parts have greatly improved over the last ten years. With the most recent rollout of the fifth generation kBox, it is arguably better than ever. The set-up process is as simple as attaching the desired attachment (e.g. belt, harness, handle), adjusting the strap to the appropriate length, deciding appropriate load, and executing the movement to ensure that the box remains stable.  All in all, the kBox provides the user with a great experience that leaves them better physically but also mentally encouraged to be consistent day to day and week to week throughout training.

Conclusion

As with the investment of any training device, there is a filter of questions that a coach and athlete must go through to decide whether the return is worth the investment. Given the consistent training benefits shown in flywheel research, that is reason enough for me to consider implementing it into training for any athlete, regardless of sport or training age (6 & 7). Flywheel training with the kBox is adaptable to the individual’s ability. Not to mention, it is versatile and portable. The exercise prescription and progression is really only limited by the imagination of the individual. Lastly, the price for the quality and durability is justifiable as well. As the saying goes, ‘you get what you pay for’ and I think for the price, the cost definitely outweighs the benefits. The kBox provides unique opportunities that could be the difference maker in an individual’s ability to be stronger, faster, and more durable.

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Reading should be a cornerstone of practitioners in strength and conditioning and sports performance. From reading comes the opportunity to both gain new knowledge and challenge your existing beliefs, leading to an evolution of your daily practices and providing a higher level of service to your athletes. But with all the options out there, how do you pick the right book? In this multi-part series, here are 8 of the best strength and conditioning books for coaches.

1 . High-Performance Training for Sports 

by David Joyce and Daniel Lewindon [view on Amazon]

This book covers a wide range of topics including speed, agility, jumping and landing capabilities, anaerobic and aerobic conditioning, programming for the in-season and off-season, learning and cueing, and creating a positive training environment. The authors draw on their extensive experience working with elite athletes to provide practical recommendations for coaches. Names of some of the authors who contributed include Loren Landow, Brett Bartholomew, JB Morin, Stuart McMillan, and Duncan French. The book is laid out in a simple, logical flow:

• Part 1: Establishing and Developing Resilience (the foundations of training)
• Part 2: Developing Athletic Capabilities (what to do when actually training)
• Part 3: Enhancing and Sustaining Performance (taking you through a real-life calendar of off-season, pre-season, and in-season training)

This is considered one of the most well-rounded strength and conditioning books available. Alternatively, you can watch a review here:

2. Strength and Conditioning: Biological Principles and Practical Applications

by Marco Cardinale, Robert Newton, and Kazunori Nosaka [view on Amazon]

An excellent resource for S&C coaches and practitioners strength looking to develop a deep understanding of the science behind strength and conditioning. However, this information is also tied into application in practical ways. The 5 main sections of this book include skeletal muscle physiology, neural adaptations to resistance exercise, principles of athlete testing, resistance training modes, and strength and conditioning as a rehabilitation tool. This book will create a solid foundation for the scientific whys of training athletes for all strength and conditioning coaches.

3. The Science and Practice of Strength and Conditioning

by Vladimir Zatsiorsky and William Kraemer [view on Amazon]

Written by some of the most experienced coaches in the field, who combined have worked with +100 world champions, Olympians, and record holders, the authors emphasise the importance of balancing scientific principles with practical experience by incorporating the latest research into training programs. The book also includes a variety of training programs for different sports and levels of experience, making it a valuable resource for coaches and practitioners working with a wide range of athletes.

This book is divided into three parts: the foundational knowledge of strength and conditioning, the variety of training methods in strength and conditioning, and training for specific populations (including women, youth athletes, and seniors). This book is the ideal combination of academic and applied knowledge perfect for any strength and conditioning coach.

4. Strength and Conditioning for Young Athletes

by Rhodri Lloyd and Jon Oliver [view on Amazon]

Lloyd and Oliver emphasise that young athletes are not mini adults and require a different approach to training, as strength and conditioning is not “one size fits all.” The book also emphasises the importance of creating a positive training environment that promotes motivation, enjoyment, and long-term engagement in physical activity; this is considered one of the most important yet least talked about topics. The 3 main sections include:

1. Fundamental concepts of youth development
2. Development of physical fitness in young athletes
3. Contemporary issues for young athletes.

Contributing authors include well-known names like Duncan French, John Cronin, and Micheal Cahill. With over 100 exercises with detailed instructions and pictures, this book offers sample training programs which makes this an essential resource for any coach in strength and conditioning who works with youth athletes.

5. Strength and Conditioning for Sports Performance

by Ian Jeffreys and Jeremy Moody [view on Amazon]

Including detailed information on both how to assess an athlete’s needs and how to design a program that meets those needs, this book covers the foundational science of strength and conditioning among a variety of topics including training flexibility, plyometrics, strength, speed, and endurance.

The book is authored by world-leading strength and conditioning specialists such as Nick Winkleman, Tim Gabbett, Michael Stone, and Bryan Mann. Amongst all their combined experience, this book also includes sport-specific chapters that examine the application of strength and conditioning to various sports, including soccer, basketball, golf, track and field, rugby, and American football. This book is great for strength and conditioning coaches working with a variety of sports.

6. Designing Resistance Training Programs

by Steven Fleck and William Kraemer [view on Amazon]

This book creates a detailed foundation for programming by explaining the anatomy and physiology of the musculoskeletal system, as well as the metabolic and hormonal responses to exercise. Building on this, the book includes detailed instructions on how to assess an individual’s strengths and weaknesses, which is crucial for effective program design.

This book is unique in its approach to some of the more nuanced topics including advanced training techniques, manipulating training variables, and planning rest in long-term training programs. Overall, if strength and conditioning coaches want to take their programming to the next level, this is the book for them.

7. The Science and Development of Muscle Hypertrophy

by Brad Schoenfeld [view on Amazon]

The most comprehensive guide on the latest research and practical applications of muscle hypertrophy. The book is written in a scientific yet digestible manner, as the author breaks down complex concepts into understandable terms and brings the information back to real-life application. Provided are clear guidelines on how to design resistance training programs that optimise muscle growth, including topics such as exercise selection, volume, intensity, frequency, and periodisation. And to provide even more value, the author covers topics such as nutrition, supplementation, and recovery to build on the training.

The book is well-referenced, with over 800 scientific references cited, providing fantastic information to strength and conditioning coaches looking to learn more about hypertrophy training.

8. Strength and Conditioning for Team Sports 

by Paul Gamble [view on Amazon]

A great read for strength and conditioning coaches who are looking to improve their athlete’s performance in the team setting. Topics include a thorough list covering everything team sport athletes need such as physiological and performance testing, core stability, agility and speed development, power training, strength training, metabolic conditioning, training periodisation, and injury prevention.

With over 200 new references, this book provides evidence-based best practices and recommendations for preparing team sport athletes. It also includes detailed examples of training programs for various team sports to help bring the information shared in the book to life. Overall, this is one of the most important places to start for strength and conditioning coaches who work with team sports.

Conclusion

Hopefully throughout reading the concise summaries of 8 of the top books for strength and conditioning coaches you’ve selected 1 or 2 books to pursue first to help you get closer to your goals. It’s always worth noting that the point of reading books is not just to read, but to make you a better coach.

It is recommended that you keep a notebook next to you and write down any ideas of new exercises to try, different programming principles, or anything that will turn this information into tweaks or modifications to improve your everyday coaching. A big shout out to you, reader, for wanting to level yourself up as a professional.

The post Best Books for Strength & Conditioning Coaches: Part 1 appeared first on Science for Sport.

Virtual reality for sports training is becoming an option for many athletes. While it’s not for everyone, it does have potential to help support the development of technique and even help minimise some injury risks.

By Dr. Tom Brownlee
Last updated: March 17th, 2025
7 min read

Virtual reality for sports training: Should you dive into ‘VR’?

November 22, 2003 was the date of one of England’s greatest sporting achievements of the modern era. In Sydney, Australia they dramatically won the Rugby World Cup in the last minute of extra time with a drop goal from Jonny Wilkinson.

The team that played that night quickly became legends across the country, with many receiving honours from the Queen. One of them was hooker Steve Thompson. You would expect that World Cup win was the greatest of Thompson’s life, yet in 2020, he said in an interview he didn’t even remember playing in the match. This wasn’t just a case of adrenaline blurring out the details as we hear from sports stars after victories either. This was very likely CTE, or chronic traumatic encephalopathy, coupled with early-onset dementia. CTE is a gradual shrinking of certain key areas of the brain and it is not uncommon in athletes.

There has been a lot in the news in recent years around concussion in sport. Maybe you’ve seen the 2015 Will Smith film Concussion that considered how repeated blows to the head while playing American football can add up to cause some very serious consequences. It is likely the multiple concussions and blows to the head Thompson received during his career had contributed to his condition.

Perhaps you’re already putting two and two together in your head? Contact sports like American football, rugby and Australian rules football are hugely physical – maybe this was inevitable?
However, perhaps even more frightening (given the nature of the sport), is the increasing frequency with which soccer players are reporting signs of dementia. This is thought to be linked not to impact with other players, but to heading the ball. Many high-profile players have spoken out about this, including former England captain Terry Butcher, who called for the gradual phasing out of heading to prevent “catastrophic” brain injuries.

As a result of the growing awareness around head injuries, there are many new protocols in place across sport. These range from the use of independent doctors in some sports to ensure player safety is prioritised ahead of team needs following a knock, to a reduction in the amount of heading allowed in youth soccer practice in the US.

More recently, advances in technology have helped, offering training alternatives to hopefully reduce the incidence of head injuries altogether. Additionally, such advances may help with diagnosis and monitoring of head injuries should they occur. One such technology that you may not have considered in this fight is virtual reality.

What is virtual reality supposed to do?

For a lot of us, we hear words like Alzheimer’s and dementia and place them in the same bracket as sorting out your pension – something we don’t need to think about as they’re the concern of old people.

In reality, though, when you consider the number of ex-athletes who are being diagnosed with such issues, it certainly is something we should pay a lot more attention to. This is especially the case when you consider many of these diagnoses are not linked to crunching tackles in rugby or body-rattling collisions in contact sports. In fact, as is the case in soccer, they’re a result of many accumulating small head impacts, such as simply heading a ball throughout a career.

Often, in fact, these repetitive head impacts (RHI), also known as subconcussive impacts, are so innocuous they do not even register to the player or staff that they’ve occurred. But they add up.

This is where virtual reality may come in. It has attracted much interest as a training solution because it not only allows safe, repeatable training tasks, but it affords complete control over the training environment. Before sport, these benefits made virtual reality a favourite for training surgeons. Obviously, this is an environment where you don’t get much wiggle room to make mistakes!
Although, it’s accepted this removes the vital stress elements of the task, which we might equate to playing in front of 80,000 people, but it does provide a useful learning platform. It is with these reward-without-risk benefits that there is potential of carryover to sport.

One key factor here though is realism. As humans, we have a great ability to disengage from the unrealistic, which is why as computer games graphics continue to improve, their popularity continues to grow. Virtual reality technology now is at a point where our brains are willing to accept what we see when we are immersed in that space. This can go as far as to even include the details of opposition players,  specific stadia and the ability to program in actual events that took place in yesterday’s match.

This enables a multitude of uses across a growing number of sports. Briefly, this could be replaying a set piece where an error was made in the match at the weekend or allowing a rehabilitating player to immerse themselves in recent action so they can still consider their decision-making during such plays.

But back to concussion. There is growing evidence that skill acquisition (the way we improve at the technical and tactical side of a sport) and virtual reality can co-exist. So, let’s have a look at the evidence to see how sportspeople in the near-future might be able to continue to hone their skills while reducing the risks associated with head injuries.

The science of virtual reality for sports training

Research into virtual reality and sport has typically focused on closed skills such as golf putting and goalkeepers catching crosses rather than more chaotic match play. The reason for this has been due to limitations in technology. But as stated above, this is quickly becoming less of an issue. In fact, a recent paper found virtual reality technology is now sufficiently good that it can differentiate between novice and professional players. This is really important, as it means if professionals want to use the technology, it will actually recognise their ability level and respond more critically.

This may be different to the experiences of those who can remember the good old Nintendo Wii where anyone could bowl a strike or serve an ace! In fact, such platforms may have potential for use especially with athletes who are injured and need to maintain a level of perceptual-cognitive skill while avoiding the physical load experienced in real environments. And this, of course, is key with head injuries.

If we are able to train soccer players how to head a ball without the impact, or train an AFL player how to ‘mark’ a high ball without the genuine threat of being smashed by the opposition, or train a running back how to pick a line through the defence without having their head taken off, then we could really be onto something. Couple this with an increasingly immersive experience, and use of technologies could soon become the norm.

Is ‘VR’ something that might work for you?

This technology is rapidly improving and for some of these more complex tasks it’s reasonable to think it isn’t far away at all. Some of the top sports teams in the world are already using some of the more advanced technologies. The advantages will go one step further than solely helping to prevent brain injuries as well.

Practically speaking, real-world training is always subject to constraints of time, geography, equipment, weather, or number of participants. These could all be remedied by the option of playing in a virtual world.

It’s also important to point out that of course virtual reality won’t be replacing training entirely! Of course, there is still the fitness side of any sport to consider that can’t be achieved without getting a sweat on while on the field.  It does, however, have huge potential to help support the development of proper technique which, as has been suggested across the research, could help promote safer options when it finally comes to game situations.

‘VR’ and sports: Take-homes

A growing body of evidence supports negative consequences for some players as a result of repetitive head impacts that occur in both training and matches. Sporting authorities continue to fund further research into the area as well as issuing new guidelines to make current practices safe.

However, by reducing the opportunities to practice certain important skills, concerns about a lack of technique when in game situations have been raised. Virtual reality offers a solution by allowing players to practice in a realistic and safe environment. This means if players are to compete normally, it can hopefully be done in a safer way with good technique, improved partly virtually, to help reduce head impact forces.
CTE can currently only be diagnosed after someone has died and the brain can be examined. Steve Thompson has now pledged his brain for research after his death. As tragic as his and others’ stories are, perhaps advances in technology now mean that in the future such incidents will be far less common.

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Dr. Tom Brownlee

Tom is an assistant professor in applied sports sciences and has worked with elite sports for over 10 years. Previous roles include working as a sports scientist at Liverpool F.C., where he completed his Ph.D., and working across a number of other sports. He is passionate about physiology, coach communication, and high-performance strategy and systems.

Tom graduated with a BSc in 2011 before undertaking an MSc at Loughborough University. He has published 25 academic papers on strength and conditioning, nutrition, and youth development in Sports Medicine, the Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, and others. Tom also now supervises a number of his own Ph.D. students around the world embedded within sporting organisations.

More content by Tom

The post Virtual reality for sports training: Can VR help athletes? appeared first on Science for Sport.

An elbow injury can often impact athletes who perform movements like the baseball pitching action, tennis shots, and golf swings, and a rehab program that is staged and structured will best prepare athletes to return to their respective sports.

By Will Saville
Last updated: March 23rd, 2025
3 min read

Elbow injury ‘epidemic’: The dangers of repetitive stress

Elbow injuries plague athletes who perform movements like the baseball pitching action, tennis shots, and golf swings. These movements place repetitive stress on athletes’ joints and the recent rise in these injuries can only be described as an epidemic, a leading performance physical therapist says.

“Year-round play and long competitive seasons are a significant reason for the epidemic of elbow injuries. Research by Leland et al., 2019, outlined that elbow reconstruction surgery, as a result of injury, has increased by 3% (2012 – 2018). The current prevalence of injury reconstruction surgery stands at 26% and 19% in Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball athletes respectively,” leading performance physical therapist Ziad Dahdul said during his Science for Sport presentation titled ‘Elbow Injury Rehab’.

What are the common elbow injuries?

There are a number of elbow-related repetitive stress injuries seen across all levels of sports like baseball, tennis, and golf.

“These sports place repetitive valgus stress (when the forearm is angled out away from the body when the arm is fully extended and affects medial collateral ligament) from concentric and eccentric loading during their sport-specific movements. Related elbow injuries are referred to as golfer’s and tennis elbow, or to give them their scientific terms, medial and lateral epicondyle tendinopathy,” says Dahdul.

In addition to golfer’s and tennis elbow, Dahdul explains there are a number of other common repetitive stress injuries: “these include ulnar collateral ligament tears, medial apophysitis (referred to as little league elbow), olecranon bursitis, and olecranon stress fractures.”
Anatomy of elbow with lateral, posterior or anterior view vector illustration.
These all-too-common injuries occur at various parts of the elbow and recovering from them effectively is dependent upon the extent of the injury, a structured rehab program, and athletes’ rest and behaviour changes.

Rehab and recovery from elbow injuries

Designing a rehab program that is staged and structured will best prepare athletes to return to their respective sports, Dahdul said.

Dahdul’s five-step recovery plan:

1. Reduce pain, allow the athlete to rest
2. Improve strength with isometric and heavy slow resistance work
3. Build functional strength through progressing into tasks that are closer to the desired sporting motion
4. Introduce plyometrics to develop the stretch-shortening-cycle (the ‘pre-stretch’ action that is observed during explosive human movements)
5. Add sport-specific drills

Before a full return-to-play, Dahdul said: “it’s important to integrate body regions into compound movements to allow for good translation to their sport. The primary goal during repetitive stress rehab is to decrease excessive loading, improve tissue capacity, and determine the root cause of your athlete’s issues.”

Other things to consider with elbow rehabilitation

Dahdul said: “whilst focusing on the elbow and the injured area, it is also important to focus on areas outside of the injured area. The shoulder, thoracic spine, and hips play a significant role in the recovery from elbow injuries.”

Rest and improved technique are also important aspects to mitigate repetitive stress injuries or their reoccurrence during rehab.

“Each athlete is going to recover at their own pace and managing the entire human body through sleep and nutrition all play a credible part of rehabilitation,” explained Dahdul.

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Will Saville

More content by Will

The post The elbow injury ‘epidemic’ and how to rehabilitate successfully appeared first on Science for Sport.

There is good evidence that meditation can play a role in helping athletes achieve a better state of mind when they’re competing, and this translates well across a variety of sports.

By Dr. Tom Brownlee
Last updated: March 23rd, 2025
8 min read

Sports meditation: Yes, no, maybe or sometimes?

Sports stars can be a strange bunch. I suppose it’s fair to say that anyone who is at the top of their industry can behave a little differently to the rest of us (Bezos, Elon and Zuck, I’m looking at you). Sports stars are certainly no different to this rule and whether it’s superstitions around what they eat before they compete, a persona they adopt when they cross the white line, or a desire to be super hyped (Conor McGregor) or calm (Kimi Räikkönen) before they compete, most will have practices they adopt to help them feel ready.

In recent years one of the best pole vaulters in the world has been Yelena Isinbayeva. Between rounds she would lay quietly with a towel over her head with commentators joking she was having a nap. If you’re a ‘get as hyped up as possible’ person you would probably see that and think that she couldn’t be successful, but she was. With two Olympic golds and seventeen World Records, I’m certainly not going to argue with her.

Isinbayeva isn’t the only individual to adopt such tactics either. In tennis we often see players with towels over their heads as they sit quietly between games. Often this includes top players, and their successes suggest that we don’t all need to be shouting and screaming to achieve at the sharp end. Who really knows what’s going on in their heads while the towel is on but with the rise of the use of sports psychologists, it’s not a big stretch to think that some kind of self-talk, focusing and meditation may be happening.

As I mention psychologists it’s time for a disclaimer: I am not one – at all! I am a physiologist. But I’m a physiologist who is interested in helping athletes to maximise their performances. And as such I’m interested in the potential physiological impact of psychological techniques such as meditation. So, let’s learn together and see what the supposed benefits of meditation are, how they affect us physiologically and whether there’s a place for them in our own practice.

First things first – what is meditation?

You probably have an idea for yourself but first of all, what are we actually talking about when we refer to meditation? Historically, I think when people hear the word they will think of mystics sitting cross legged searching for enlightenment. There is likely good reason for this, with evidence of meditation stretching as far back as around 3500 years! More recently we might think of lycra-clad Californian guys and girls searching for their own inner peace between chai lattes.

The actual definition of meditation is quite broad though, being described as a practice of focusing the mind on a particular thought or activity to achieve mental clarity and/or emotional calm. The actual techniques used to practise this are quite varied, but we’ll get to that later.

Benefits of meditation

So, we’ve said that meditation is supposed to help us achieve calm, clarity and a relaxed state. It has also more specifically been shown to lower stress and decrease anxiety, which obviously might be useful in sport. It has also actually been suggested to be able to alter the physical structure of the brain, which I find particularly amazing. This is supposed to be achieved via potentially being able to increase the mass of the corpus callosum and hippocampus, which are responsible for the communication of information between the left and right sides of the brain. They are also important in forming and recalling memories and controlling our emotions. If this is the case, then meditation might be able to help with solving problems, learning skills, and making decisions, which would be very useful for many sportspeople.

Meditation in an athletic setting

So, as always, let’s look into the research to see whether some of these big claims are true. Is meditating going to make us better at our sports? Perhaps it depends on our sport of choice. More stress-based sports such as golf might benefit more from a calmer mind, as those athletes consider and execute shots, compared to the more chaotic goings on of a rugby field. This might be where our meditation style should be considered. Focused attention meditation (FAM) requires the individual to focus on a specific action or object, such as their breathing. This can help to eliminate distractions and aid skills like sinking a crucial putt. The other type of meditation we’ll consider is open monitoring meditation (OMM). This is much more suited to more open sports as it allows focus on all internal and external input before decisions can be made. This type of meditation weakens the focus on the task, as there is so much else going on, but can be more appropriate in these more open type sports.

But does meditation actually work? Well, the evidence in closed sports (sports performed in a stable or largely predictable environmental setting, such as archery, golf, or field events like throwing the javelin) is pretty strong. Following an extended period of integrating meditation into normal training, golfers have been found to improve their performance across a season. It is thought this happens by identifying the right things to focus on.

This may not be surprising though given the kind of sport it is and the benefits of remaining calm, relaxed and focused on the task. The good news is that in a soccer task where meditation was used twice a week for six weeks, shooting performance improved here too. The exact mechanism of these performance benefits are uncertain though it likely shows how meditation can play a part in the toolkit of improved sports performance.

Another potential mechanism behind the successes of meditation is the ability to achieve a state of ‘flow’. Flow is that feeling where you’re ‘in the zone’ and not needing to think about the task at hand. You’ve likely heard sportspeople talk about it in interviews after exceptional performances, though often you and even them don’t know that it’s happened: “Yeah, to be honest I can’t really remember too much of the match!”; “That final set was all a bit of a blur!”; “Looking back on the race now I couldn’t even really tell you that much about it!”. This would be flow. It can manifest as a loss of concept of time, reduction in self-consciousness, a focus on the present and a sense of effortlessness in your endeavours. If only we could bottle it! But it seems meditation can help us find it easier to achieve. This is also backed up by the research and linked to decreases in pessimism.

This sadly isn’t something we can likely tap into in one session though. It seems that at least three weeks seems to be around the point where performance benefits begin to manifest. This isn’t to say there will be no performance benefits at all or no other kind of benefits. Here we come back to two themes that seem to be a running trend in sports science topics – ‘it’s individual’ and ‘the placebo effect’. We need to remember that scientific studies use what we call a sample. This means that maybe 10, 20 or 50 individuals are used in a study to allow the outcomes to be expressed as if they are likely for the whole population. That is why the average response across the whole sample is reported. Some people will respond better, some worse. The bigger the sample the better, as it’s more representative of the population as a whole. You might be one of the good responders and it might only take a week for you to benefit from meditation. On the other hand, you might be a bad responder and it might be longer before you feel a benefit.

The other ever present is the potential for the placebo effect to impact our performance – the placebo effect is real too, there is no doubt about it. If you feel you’re getting a benefit from a practice then you are! And you should keep doing it. If that’s the case for meditation for you then great. At least you can do it for free! Meditative techniques such as focusing on your breathing will also certainly have an effect on your state of calm. This might not directly help you to sink the championship-winning free throw, but it certainly won’t hurt.

Meditation techniques

So, if we think this might be something we’d like to trial, how do we actually go about doing it? If you want some help, there are plenty of apps out there that can help to lead you through it but really it doesn’t have to be too complicated. If you want to keep it simple then you can sit somewhere quiet (you don’t need to be cross-legged!) and concentrate on your breathing. The reason behind using your breathing as an anchor is that thinking of nothing (which is often what people think of as the aim of meditation) is very hard! In fact, even focusing on your breathing is hard. So perhaps start with just three minutes and gradually build it up towards the 20 minute mark.

It’s also recommended by many to do it first thing in the morning – pre-emails, pre-coffee, pre-teeth brushing. This allows you to hopefully focus before your brain starts being pulled all over the place! There are many meditation techniques, and I would advise you perhaps to trial a few to see what you feel most comfortable with.

Take-home points on sports meditation

It feels a lot of my blogs aren’t able to provide strong evidence to back up the use of the technology or practice we’re discussing. It seems today though that we are on sturdier ground – there is good evidence that meditation can play a role in helping athletes achieve a better state of mind when they’re competing. This translates well across a variety of sport types to lead to improved performance. Will it work for everyone? Of course not – not much does, but I would certainly recommend giving it a go. Just keep in mind you likely need a decent level of commitment to it as potentially you’ll feel little benefit initially.

But for a technique that can be practised very cheaply, with low time commitments and no physical effort, what are the downsides? Perhaps there’s a reason it’s been around for thousands of years!

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Dr. Tom Brownlee

Tom is an assistant professor in applied sports sciences and has worked with elite sports for over 10 years. Previous roles include working as a sports scientist at Liverpool F.C., where he completed his Ph.D., and working across a number of other sports. He is passionate about physiology, coach communication, and high-performance strategy and systems.

Tom graduated with a BSc in 2011 before undertaking an MSc at Loughborough University. He has published 25 academic papers on strength and conditioning, nutrition, and youth development in Sports Medicine, the Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, and others. Tom also now supervises a number of his own Ph.D. students around the world embedded within sporting organisations.

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